A society or a human society is (1) a group of people related to each other through persistent relations. (2) A large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.
types of societies are categories of social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies; the way that humans use technology to provide needs for themselves. Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige or power. Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process of social stratification-the division of members of a society into levels with unequal wealth, prestige or power. Sociologists place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial, industrial, and postindustrial.
Pre-industrial societies
In a pre-industrial society, food production; which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor; is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural and feudal.
Hunting and gathering societies
The main form of food production in such societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts and usually only form small groups such as Bands and Tribes, however some Hunting and Gathering Societies in areas with abundant resources (such as the Tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdoms. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies. They generally consist of fewer than 60 people and rarely exceed 100. Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement. The ties that bind the tribe are more complicated than those of the bands. Leadership is personal-charismatic-and for special purposes only in tribal society; there are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidation for collective action are not governmental. The family forms the main social unit, with most societal members being related by birth or by marriage. This type of organization requires the family to carry out most social functions; including production and education.
Pastoral societies
Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists live a normadic life, moving their herds from pasture to another. Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations. Since there are food surpluses, fewer people are needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labor; the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities; becomes more complex. For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry. The production of goods encourages trade.This trade helps to create inequality, as some families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their increased wealth. The passing on of property from generation to another helps to centralize wealth and power. In time, hereditary chieftainships; the typical form of government in pastoral societies; emerge.
Horticultural societies
Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. Some horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to raise crops. The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows them to build semipermanent or permanent villages. The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000.
As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor. Specialized roles that are part of horticultural life, include those of craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts. As in pastoral societies, surplus food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural societies; as a result, hereditary chieftainships are prevalent. Economic and political systems are developed because of settled nature of horticultural life.
Agricultural societies
Agricultural societies use technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies then led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment.
Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agricultural societies. For example, women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they became more subordinate to men. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract goods from the “lesser” persons of society.
Wednesday, May 25, 2011
Osama bin Laden
Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives and Most Wanted Terrorists for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings.[7][8][9] From 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror.
After being put on the FBI's Most Wanted list, bin Laden managed to remain in hiding during three U.S. presidential administrations. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed inside a secured private residential compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, by U.S. Navy SEALs in a covert operation ordered by U.S. President Barack Obama. Shortly after his death, bin Laden's body was buried at sea. Al-Qaeda acknowledged his death on May 6, 2011, concurrently vowing to retaliate.[10]
•
source described him as "hard working",[20]; another said he left university during his third year without completing a college degree.[21] At university, bin Laden's main interest was religion, where he was involved in both "interpreting the Quran and jihad" and charitable work.[22] Other interests included writing poetry;[23] reading, with the works of Field Marshal Montgomery and Charles de Gaulle said to be among his favorites; black stallions; and football, in which he enjoyed playing at centre forward and followed the fortunes of Arsenal F.C..[24]
In 1974, at the age of 17, bin Laden married Najwa Ghanem at Latakia;[25] they were divorced before September 11, 2001. Bin Laden's other known wives were: Khadijah Sharif (married 1983, divorced 1990s), Khairiah Sabar (married 1985), Siham Sabar (married 1987), and Amal al-Sadah (married 2000). Some sources also list a sixth wife, name unknown, whose marriage to bin Laden was annulled soon after the ceremony.[26] Bin Laden fathered between 20 and 26 children with his wives.[27][28] Many of bin Laden's children fled to Iran following the September 11 attacks and as of 2010 Iranian authorities reportedly continue to control their movement.[29]
Bin Laden's father Mohammed died in 1967 in an airplane crash in Saudi Arabia when his American pilot misjudged a landing.[30] Bin Laden's eldest half-brother, Salem bin Laden, the subsequent head of the bin Laden family, was killed in 1988 near San Antonio, Texas in the United States, when he accidentally flew a plane into power lines.
The FBI described bin Laden as an adult as tall and thin, between 6 ft. 4 in and 6 ft. 6 in. (193– 198 cm) in height and weighing about 165 pounds (75 kg). Interviewer Lawrence Wright, on the other hand, described him as quite slender, but not particularly tall.[31] Bin Laden had an olive complexion and was left-handed, usually walking with a cane. He wore a plain white turban and he had stopped wearing the traditional Saudi male headdress.[32] Bin Laden was described as soft-spoken and mild-mannered in demeanor.[33]
Beliefs and ideology
Main article: Beliefs and ideology of Osama bin Laden
According to former CIA analyst Michael Scheuer, who led the CIA's hunt for Osama Bin Laden, the al-Qaeda leader was motivated by a belief that U.S. foreign policy has oppressed, killed, or otherwise harmed Muslims in the Middle East,[34] condensed in the phrase "They hate us for what we do, not who we are."
Bin Laden also said only the restoration of Sharia law would "set things right" in the Muslim world, and that alternatives such as "pan-Arabism, socialism, communism, democracy" must be opposed.[35] This belief, in conjunction with violent jihad, has sometimes been called Qutbism after being promoted by Sayyid Qutb.[36] Bin Laden believed that Afghanistan, under the rule of Mullah Omar's Taliban, was "the only Islamic country" in the Muslim world.[37] Bin Laden consistently dwelt on the need for violent jihad to right what he believed were injustices against Muslims perpetrated by the United States and sometimes by other non-Muslim states,[38] the need to eliminate the state of Israel, and the necessity of forcing the United States to withdraw from the Middle East. He also called on Americans to "reject the immoral acts of fornication, homosexuality, intoxicants, gambling, and usury," in an October 2002 letter.[39]
Bin Laden's ideology included the idea that civilians, including women and children, are legitimate targets of jihad.[40][41] Bin Laden was anti-Semitic, and delivered warnings against alleged Jewish conspiracies: "These Jews are masters of usury and leaders in treachery. They will leave you nothing, either in this world or the next."[42] Shia Muslims have been listed along with "heretics, […] America, and Israel" as the four principal "enemies of Islam" at ideology classes of bin Laden's al-Qaeda organization.[43]
Bin Laden opposed music on religious grounds,[44] and his attitude towards technology was mixed. He was interested in "earth-moving machinery and genetic engineering of plants" on the one hand, but rejected "chilled water" on the other.[45]
His viewpoints and methods of achieving them had led to him being designated as a terrorist by scholars,[46][47] journalists from The New York Times,[48][49] the BBC,[50] and Qatari news station Al Jazeera,[51] analysts such as Peter Bergen,[52] Michael Scheuer,[53] Marc Sageman,[54] and Bruce Hoffman[55][56] and he was indicted on terrorism charges by law enforcement agencies in Madrid, New York City, and Tripoli
After being put on the FBI's Most Wanted list, bin Laden managed to remain in hiding during three U.S. presidential administrations. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed inside a secured private residential compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, by U.S. Navy SEALs in a covert operation ordered by U.S. President Barack Obama. Shortly after his death, bin Laden's body was buried at sea. Al-Qaeda acknowledged his death on May 6, 2011, concurrently vowing to retaliate.[10]
•
source described him as "hard working",[20]; another said he left university during his third year without completing a college degree.[21] At university, bin Laden's main interest was religion, where he was involved in both "interpreting the Quran and jihad" and charitable work.[22] Other interests included writing poetry;[23] reading, with the works of Field Marshal Montgomery and Charles de Gaulle said to be among his favorites; black stallions; and football, in which he enjoyed playing at centre forward and followed the fortunes of Arsenal F.C..[24]
In 1974, at the age of 17, bin Laden married Najwa Ghanem at Latakia;[25] they were divorced before September 11, 2001. Bin Laden's other known wives were: Khadijah Sharif (married 1983, divorced 1990s), Khairiah Sabar (married 1985), Siham Sabar (married 1987), and Amal al-Sadah (married 2000). Some sources also list a sixth wife, name unknown, whose marriage to bin Laden was annulled soon after the ceremony.[26] Bin Laden fathered between 20 and 26 children with his wives.[27][28] Many of bin Laden's children fled to Iran following the September 11 attacks and as of 2010 Iranian authorities reportedly continue to control their movement.[29]
Bin Laden's father Mohammed died in 1967 in an airplane crash in Saudi Arabia when his American pilot misjudged a landing.[30] Bin Laden's eldest half-brother, Salem bin Laden, the subsequent head of the bin Laden family, was killed in 1988 near San Antonio, Texas in the United States, when he accidentally flew a plane into power lines.
The FBI described bin Laden as an adult as tall and thin, between 6 ft. 4 in and 6 ft. 6 in. (193– 198 cm) in height and weighing about 165 pounds (75 kg). Interviewer Lawrence Wright, on the other hand, described him as quite slender, but not particularly tall.[31] Bin Laden had an olive complexion and was left-handed, usually walking with a cane. He wore a plain white turban and he had stopped wearing the traditional Saudi male headdress.[32] Bin Laden was described as soft-spoken and mild-mannered in demeanor.[33]
Beliefs and ideology
Main article: Beliefs and ideology of Osama bin Laden
According to former CIA analyst Michael Scheuer, who led the CIA's hunt for Osama Bin Laden, the al-Qaeda leader was motivated by a belief that U.S. foreign policy has oppressed, killed, or otherwise harmed Muslims in the Middle East,[34] condensed in the phrase "They hate us for what we do, not who we are."
Bin Laden also said only the restoration of Sharia law would "set things right" in the Muslim world, and that alternatives such as "pan-Arabism, socialism, communism, democracy" must be opposed.[35] This belief, in conjunction with violent jihad, has sometimes been called Qutbism after being promoted by Sayyid Qutb.[36] Bin Laden believed that Afghanistan, under the rule of Mullah Omar's Taliban, was "the only Islamic country" in the Muslim world.[37] Bin Laden consistently dwelt on the need for violent jihad to right what he believed were injustices against Muslims perpetrated by the United States and sometimes by other non-Muslim states,[38] the need to eliminate the state of Israel, and the necessity of forcing the United States to withdraw from the Middle East. He also called on Americans to "reject the immoral acts of fornication, homosexuality, intoxicants, gambling, and usury," in an October 2002 letter.[39]
Bin Laden's ideology included the idea that civilians, including women and children, are legitimate targets of jihad.[40][41] Bin Laden was anti-Semitic, and delivered warnings against alleged Jewish conspiracies: "These Jews are masters of usury and leaders in treachery. They will leave you nothing, either in this world or the next."[42] Shia Muslims have been listed along with "heretics, […] America, and Israel" as the four principal "enemies of Islam" at ideology classes of bin Laden's al-Qaeda organization.[43]
Bin Laden opposed music on religious grounds,[44] and his attitude towards technology was mixed. He was interested in "earth-moving machinery and genetic engineering of plants" on the one hand, but rejected "chilled water" on the other.[45]
His viewpoints and methods of achieving them had led to him being designated as a terrorist by scholars,[46][47] journalists from The New York Times,[48][49] the BBC,[50] and Qatari news station Al Jazeera,[51] analysts such as Peter Bergen,[52] Michael Scheuer,[53] Marc Sageman,[54] and Bruce Hoffman[55][56] and he was indicted on terrorism charges by law enforcement agencies in Madrid, New York City, and Tripoli
Christopher Maurice "
Christopher Maurice "Chris" Brown (born May 5, 1989) is an American R&B singer, songwriter, dancer, and actor. He made his recording debut in late 2005 with the self-titled album Chris Brown at the age of 16. The album featured the hit single "Run It!", which topped the Billboard Hot 100, making Brown the first male artist to have his debut single top the chart since Montell Jordan in 1995.[1] The album has sold over two million copies in the United States and was certified double Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).[2]
Brown's second studio album, Exclusive was released worldwide in November 2007. It spawned two successful singles; his second U.S. number one hit, "Kiss Kiss" featuring T-Pain and "With You", which peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100.[3][4] Brown has released a deluxe version of his album called The Forever Edition. The first single from it, "Forever", was released in May 2008 and reached number two on Billboard Hot 100.[5] Exclusive has been certified Platinum by the RIAA.[2] The third studio album, titled Graffiti, was released on December 15, 2009. The first official single was "I Can Transform Ya", featuring Lil Wayne and Swizz Beatz, which peaked at number-twenty on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Brown's eighth Top 20 hit on that chart. He has had various other hit singles,[6] and his dance routines have been compared to the likes of Michael Jackson.[7] In 2009, Brown pleaded guilty to felony assault of singer Rihanna, and was sentenced to five years probation and six months of community service.
Christopher Maurice Brown was born on May 5, 1989,[8] in the small town of Tappahannock, Virginia,[9] to Joyce Hawkins, a former day care center director, and Clinton Brown, a corrections officer at a local prison.[10][11] The youngest child of the couple, he has an older sister who works in a bank.[10] Since his childhood, music was something which always had been present in Brown's life. He used to listen soul albums that his parents had owned,[11] but eventually, Brown began to show interest in the hip-hop scene.[8]
Brown taught himself to sing and dance at a young age, often citing Michael Jackson as his inspiration.[10] He then began to perform in his church choir and in several local talent shows.[12][13] While mimicking an Usher performance, his mother recognized his vocal talent and they began to look for opportunities of a record deal.[12] At the same time, Brown had been through personal issues. His parents had already been divorced, and he said his mother's boyfriend made him terrified all the time due to the domestic violence his mother endured from her boyfriend.[14]
At the age of 13, Brown was discovered by a local production team who visited his father's gas station while searching for new talent.[15] The singer then, moved to New York.[10] In 2004, Tina Davis — then-senior A&R executive at Def Jam Recordings — discovered him while he was working with some local producers. She loved what she heard and saw when Brown auditioned in her office at Island Def Jam Records in New York. She immediately took him to meet the former president of the Island Def Jam Music Group Antonio "L.A." Reid, who offered to sign him at the same day. "I knew that Chris had real talent," says Davis. "I just knew I wanted to be part of it."[16]
The negotiations with Def Jam lasted two months until Davis lost her job due to a corporate merger. Brown then asked her to be his manager and Davis accepted, starting to "promote" the singer to labels such as Jive Records, J-Records and Warner Bros. Records. According to Mark Pitts in an interview with HitQuarters, Davis presented Brown with a video recording and Pitts' reaction was: "I saw the potential ... I didn’t love all the records, but I loved his voice. It wasn’t a problem because I knew that he could sing, and I knew how to make records."[17] Brown ultimately choose Jive, due to its successful work with then-young acts such as Britney Spears and Justin Timberlake. Brown claims, "I picked Jive because they had the best success with younger artists in the pop market, [...] I knew I was going to capture my African American audience, but Jive had a lot of strength in the pop area as well as longevity in careers."[16]
After being signed to Jive Records in 2004, Brown started the recording process in February 2005. By May, there were 50 songs already recorded, 14 of which were picked to the final track listing.[10] The singer worked with several producers and songwriters—Scott Storch, Cool & Dre and Jazze Pha among them—commenting that they "really believed in [him]".[18] Brown also made some input on the album, receiving co-writing credits of five tracks.[10] "I write about the things that 16 year olds go through every day," says Brown. "Like you just got in trouble for sneaking your girl into the house, or you can't drive, so you steal a car or something."[19] The whole album took less than eight weeks to produce,[19] being released on November 29, 2005.[20] Self-titled Chris Brown, it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with first week sales of 154,000 copies.[21] Chris Brown was a relative commercial success with the time; selling over two million copies in the United States—where it was certified two times platinum by the RIAA—and three million copies worldwide.[22][23] The album's lead single, "Run It!", made Brown the first male act (since Montell Jordan in 1995) to have his debut single to reach the summit of the Billboard Hot 100—later remaining for four additionally weeks.[8] Three of the other singles—"Yo (Excuse Me Miss)," "Gimme That" and "Say Goodbye"—peaked within the top twenty at the same chart.[24]
On June 13, 2006, Brown released a DVD entitled, Chris Brown's Journey, which shows footage of him traveling in England and Japan, getting ready for his first visit to the Grammy Awards, behind the scenes of his music videos and bloopers.
On August 17, 2006 to further promote the album, Brown began his major co-headlining tour, The Up Close and Personal Tour. Due to the tour, production for his next album was pushed back two months. St. Jude Children's Research Hospital received $50,000 in ticket proceeds from Brown's 2006 "Up Close & Personal" tour. Brown was also the opening act for R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles on the Australian leg of her The Beyoncé Experience tour.
Brown has made appearances on UPN's One on One and The N's Brandon T. Jackson Show on its pilot episode.[25][26] In addition, Brown landed a small role as a band geek in the fourth season of Fox's The O.C. in January 2007.[27] Brown then made his film debut in Stomp the Yard, alongside Ne-Yo, Meagan Good and Columbus Short in Janu
Brown's second studio album, Exclusive was released worldwide in November 2007. It spawned two successful singles; his second U.S. number one hit, "Kiss Kiss" featuring T-Pain and "With You", which peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100.[3][4] Brown has released a deluxe version of his album called The Forever Edition. The first single from it, "Forever", was released in May 2008 and reached number two on Billboard Hot 100.[5] Exclusive has been certified Platinum by the RIAA.[2] The third studio album, titled Graffiti, was released on December 15, 2009. The first official single was "I Can Transform Ya", featuring Lil Wayne and Swizz Beatz, which peaked at number-twenty on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Brown's eighth Top 20 hit on that chart. He has had various other hit singles,[6] and his dance routines have been compared to the likes of Michael Jackson.[7] In 2009, Brown pleaded guilty to felony assault of singer Rihanna, and was sentenced to five years probation and six months of community service.
Christopher Maurice Brown was born on May 5, 1989,[8] in the small town of Tappahannock, Virginia,[9] to Joyce Hawkins, a former day care center director, and Clinton Brown, a corrections officer at a local prison.[10][11] The youngest child of the couple, he has an older sister who works in a bank.[10] Since his childhood, music was something which always had been present in Brown's life. He used to listen soul albums that his parents had owned,[11] but eventually, Brown began to show interest in the hip-hop scene.[8]
Brown taught himself to sing and dance at a young age, often citing Michael Jackson as his inspiration.[10] He then began to perform in his church choir and in several local talent shows.[12][13] While mimicking an Usher performance, his mother recognized his vocal talent and they began to look for opportunities of a record deal.[12] At the same time, Brown had been through personal issues. His parents had already been divorced, and he said his mother's boyfriend made him terrified all the time due to the domestic violence his mother endured from her boyfriend.[14]
At the age of 13, Brown was discovered by a local production team who visited his father's gas station while searching for new talent.[15] The singer then, moved to New York.[10] In 2004, Tina Davis — then-senior A&R executive at Def Jam Recordings — discovered him while he was working with some local producers. She loved what she heard and saw when Brown auditioned in her office at Island Def Jam Records in New York. She immediately took him to meet the former president of the Island Def Jam Music Group Antonio "L.A." Reid, who offered to sign him at the same day. "I knew that Chris had real talent," says Davis. "I just knew I wanted to be part of it."[16]
The negotiations with Def Jam lasted two months until Davis lost her job due to a corporate merger. Brown then asked her to be his manager and Davis accepted, starting to "promote" the singer to labels such as Jive Records, J-Records and Warner Bros. Records. According to Mark Pitts in an interview with HitQuarters, Davis presented Brown with a video recording and Pitts' reaction was: "I saw the potential ... I didn’t love all the records, but I loved his voice. It wasn’t a problem because I knew that he could sing, and I knew how to make records."[17] Brown ultimately choose Jive, due to its successful work with then-young acts such as Britney Spears and Justin Timberlake. Brown claims, "I picked Jive because they had the best success with younger artists in the pop market, [...] I knew I was going to capture my African American audience, but Jive had a lot of strength in the pop area as well as longevity in careers."[16]
After being signed to Jive Records in 2004, Brown started the recording process in February 2005. By May, there were 50 songs already recorded, 14 of which were picked to the final track listing.[10] The singer worked with several producers and songwriters—Scott Storch, Cool & Dre and Jazze Pha among them—commenting that they "really believed in [him]".[18] Brown also made some input on the album, receiving co-writing credits of five tracks.[10] "I write about the things that 16 year olds go through every day," says Brown. "Like you just got in trouble for sneaking your girl into the house, or you can't drive, so you steal a car or something."[19] The whole album took less than eight weeks to produce,[19] being released on November 29, 2005.[20] Self-titled Chris Brown, it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with first week sales of 154,000 copies.[21] Chris Brown was a relative commercial success with the time; selling over two million copies in the United States—where it was certified two times platinum by the RIAA—and three million copies worldwide.[22][23] The album's lead single, "Run It!", made Brown the first male act (since Montell Jordan in 1995) to have his debut single to reach the summit of the Billboard Hot 100—later remaining for four additionally weeks.[8] Three of the other singles—"Yo (Excuse Me Miss)," "Gimme That" and "Say Goodbye"—peaked within the top twenty at the same chart.[24]
On June 13, 2006, Brown released a DVD entitled, Chris Brown's Journey, which shows footage of him traveling in England and Japan, getting ready for his first visit to the Grammy Awards, behind the scenes of his music videos and bloopers.
On August 17, 2006 to further promote the album, Brown began his major co-headlining tour, The Up Close and Personal Tour. Due to the tour, production for his next album was pushed back two months. St. Jude Children's Research Hospital received $50,000 in ticket proceeds from Brown's 2006 "Up Close & Personal" tour. Brown was also the opening act for R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles on the Australian leg of her The Beyoncé Experience tour.
Brown has made appearances on UPN's One on One and The N's Brandon T. Jackson Show on its pilot episode.[25][26] In addition, Brown landed a small role as a band geek in the fourth season of Fox's The O.C. in January 2007.[27] Brown then made his film debut in Stomp the Yard, alongside Ne-Yo, Meagan Good and Columbus Short in Janu
Tanga Region
Tanga Region is one of the 26 regions of Tanzania. The regional headquarters is in Tanga. According to the 2002 Tanzania National Census, the region has a population of 1,642,015 people.
The region is bordered to the north by Kenya and Kilimanjaro Region, to the East by the Indian Ocean, to the South by Pwani and Morogoro regions, and to the West by Manyara Region.
The Region was previously known as Tanga Province, which, however, included the Same and Mwanga districts which are at present in Kilimanjaro Region.
Tanga Region has eight districts: Handeni, Kilindi, Korogwe, Lushoto, Muheza, Mkinga, Pangani and Tanga.
Tribes
The tribes that have migrated to the Region are the Pare, Wataita, Wasambaa, Wambugu, Segeju, Wadigo and Wanago.
The region is bordered to the north by Kenya and Kilimanjaro Region, to the East by the Indian Ocean, to the South by Pwani and Morogoro regions, and to the West by Manyara Region.
The Region was previously known as Tanga Province, which, however, included the Same and Mwanga districts which are at present in Kilimanjaro Region.
Tanga Region has eight districts: Handeni, Kilindi, Korogwe, Lushoto, Muheza, Mkinga, Pangani and Tanga.
Tribes
The tribes that have migrated to the Region are the Pare, Wataita, Wasambaa, Wambugu, Segeju, Wadigo and Wanago.
Hotel Rwanda"
"Hotel Rwanda" is the best movie of 2004.
Written by Keir Pearson and Terry George, and directed by George (Oscar-nominated scribe of "In the Name of the Father"), "Hotel Rwanda" depicts the brutal Rwandan Civil War of 1994, when the majority Hutus slaughtered the minority Tutsis and the world did nothing to stop it. One of the few who did do something was Paul Rusesabagina (a spectacular Don Cheadle), a Hutu who hid one thousand Tutsis (including his wife) and Hutu moderates at his own hotel, keeping the killers at bay through a combination of smooth talk, outright bribes and sheer bravado.
As this brief synopsis suggests, "Hotel Rwanda" can be dismissed as just another version of "Schindler's List." But despite "Schindler's" undeniable power, "Hotel Rwanda" surpasses it in two important ways. One is dramatic focus. "Schindler's" spends so much time with villain Amon Goeth that we tend to lose our emotional connection with Schindler himself, the actual hero of the piece. "Hotel Rwanda" on the other hand keeps Paul front and center the entire movie, keeping that emotional connection, and rooting interest, strong. Two, Paul faces more danger than Schindler, as he, his wife and children are constantly threatened with death for much of the film. There's nary a moment when Paul and his family don't have a gun or machete jammed in their face. In fact, most of "Hotel Rwanda" is about Paul jumping from the frying pan into the fire and back again to avoid his own extinction. And since life-and-death stakes are the highest stakes there are, they produce the most suspense -- and audience interest. Better yet, this suspense builds through a structure of rising tension. Whether it's his European "protection" leaving Rwanda, his running out of money and valuables (i.e. scotch) to bribe his enemies, or his turncoat assistant selling him out to the Hutu killers, Paul faces bigger and bigger obstacles as the film goes along, generating more interest the deeper we get into the movie. And that's a good thing when you want to keep an audience glued till the very end.
Now as a filmmaker, George is hardly subtle. Whether it's his writing, direction or use of music, he usually takes the most obvious approach to pricking our conscience, or tugging at our heartstrings (i.e. having children rescued as music swells, etc.). Though effective, this could easily send the picture into the realm of melodrama. Fortunately, Don Cheadle's understated performance serves as a wonderful counterbalance. Cheadle superbly limns a man whose job as hotel manager is to make order out of chaos, a buttoned-down personality who believes every problem can be solved with a pleasant smile and the right kind of wine. So when he finds it increasingly impossible to "manage" the genocide around him, his resulting emotional breakdown devastates the audience, since up till then he has kept his feelings so close to the vest. Paul's three-dimensionality also keeps the corniness at bay. He isn't a saintly figure, but a man both good and bad, both selfish and selfless (at first he doesn't want to help his neighbors because they're not family). He's a mixture of conflicting impulses, just like the rest of us, and this helps ground the film's often naked emotion in a recognizable reality.
Ironically, "Hotel Rwanda" may be too subtle in its depiction of the genocide itself (it's only rated PG-13). It's either portrayed in quick flashes or from a discreet distance. Does this lack of gore and blood trivialize the genocide by making it seem innocuous? Maybe, but by not showing the violence up close and personal, the film also leaves a lot to the viewer's imagination, making him even more terrified of what's around the next corner. After all, the best make-up job can never compete with the horrors of the imagination. And though graphic violence can be initially shocking, seeing it over and over again, even in a classic like "Schindler's List," has a dulling, monotonous effect that minimizes the impact of that violence over the long run. When the violence in "Hotel Rwanda" does occur, it's all the more shocking since we're not used to it, for the most part having been kept off-screen.
But what really makes "Hotel Rwanda" special isn't just the constant suspense, fine acting and heart-breaking emotion, but the importance of the subject matter itself. The Rwandan Civil War was practically ignored by the West, since, as one character in the film cynically puts it, saving the Tutsis wouldn't earn the politicians any votes. By documenting this criminally-neglected genocide for posterity, "Hotel Rwanda" performs a valuable service.
Better yet, in an era when most movies seem to be about nothing more than themselves, quickly fading from memory, "Hotel Rwanda" actually has something to say. In fact, it's blessed with two resonant themes: that one man can make a difference when it comes to saving lives, and more importantly, that we are all our brother's keeper. We ignore the latter to our peril. Certainly, if we don't go to someone's aid, we can't expect them to come to ours. For as Benjamin Franklin once said, "We must, indeed, all hang together or, most assuredly, we shall all hang separately."
Responses, comments and general two-cents worth can be E-mailed to gillis662000@yahoo.com.
(Note: For all those who missed my past reviews, they're archived on Hollywoodlitsales.com. Just click the link on the main page and it'll take you to the Inner Sanctum. Love them or Hate them at your leisure!)
Written by Keir Pearson and Terry George, and directed by George (Oscar-nominated scribe of "In the Name of the Father"), "Hotel Rwanda" depicts the brutal Rwandan Civil War of 1994, when the majority Hutus slaughtered the minority Tutsis and the world did nothing to stop it. One of the few who did do something was Paul Rusesabagina (a spectacular Don Cheadle), a Hutu who hid one thousand Tutsis (including his wife) and Hutu moderates at his own hotel, keeping the killers at bay through a combination of smooth talk, outright bribes and sheer bravado.
As this brief synopsis suggests, "Hotel Rwanda" can be dismissed as just another version of "Schindler's List." But despite "Schindler's" undeniable power, "Hotel Rwanda" surpasses it in two important ways. One is dramatic focus. "Schindler's" spends so much time with villain Amon Goeth that we tend to lose our emotional connection with Schindler himself, the actual hero of the piece. "Hotel Rwanda" on the other hand keeps Paul front and center the entire movie, keeping that emotional connection, and rooting interest, strong. Two, Paul faces more danger than Schindler, as he, his wife and children are constantly threatened with death for much of the film. There's nary a moment when Paul and his family don't have a gun or machete jammed in their face. In fact, most of "Hotel Rwanda" is about Paul jumping from the frying pan into the fire and back again to avoid his own extinction. And since life-and-death stakes are the highest stakes there are, they produce the most suspense -- and audience interest. Better yet, this suspense builds through a structure of rising tension. Whether it's his European "protection" leaving Rwanda, his running out of money and valuables (i.e. scotch) to bribe his enemies, or his turncoat assistant selling him out to the Hutu killers, Paul faces bigger and bigger obstacles as the film goes along, generating more interest the deeper we get into the movie. And that's a good thing when you want to keep an audience glued till the very end.
Now as a filmmaker, George is hardly subtle. Whether it's his writing, direction or use of music, he usually takes the most obvious approach to pricking our conscience, or tugging at our heartstrings (i.e. having children rescued as music swells, etc.). Though effective, this could easily send the picture into the realm of melodrama. Fortunately, Don Cheadle's understated performance serves as a wonderful counterbalance. Cheadle superbly limns a man whose job as hotel manager is to make order out of chaos, a buttoned-down personality who believes every problem can be solved with a pleasant smile and the right kind of wine. So when he finds it increasingly impossible to "manage" the genocide around him, his resulting emotional breakdown devastates the audience, since up till then he has kept his feelings so close to the vest. Paul's three-dimensionality also keeps the corniness at bay. He isn't a saintly figure, but a man both good and bad, both selfish and selfless (at first he doesn't want to help his neighbors because they're not family). He's a mixture of conflicting impulses, just like the rest of us, and this helps ground the film's often naked emotion in a recognizable reality.
Ironically, "Hotel Rwanda" may be too subtle in its depiction of the genocide itself (it's only rated PG-13). It's either portrayed in quick flashes or from a discreet distance. Does this lack of gore and blood trivialize the genocide by making it seem innocuous? Maybe, but by not showing the violence up close and personal, the film also leaves a lot to the viewer's imagination, making him even more terrified of what's around the next corner. After all, the best make-up job can never compete with the horrors of the imagination. And though graphic violence can be initially shocking, seeing it over and over again, even in a classic like "Schindler's List," has a dulling, monotonous effect that minimizes the impact of that violence over the long run. When the violence in "Hotel Rwanda" does occur, it's all the more shocking since we're not used to it, for the most part having been kept off-screen.
But what really makes "Hotel Rwanda" special isn't just the constant suspense, fine acting and heart-breaking emotion, but the importance of the subject matter itself. The Rwandan Civil War was practically ignored by the West, since, as one character in the film cynically puts it, saving the Tutsis wouldn't earn the politicians any votes. By documenting this criminally-neglected genocide for posterity, "Hotel Rwanda" performs a valuable service.
Better yet, in an era when most movies seem to be about nothing more than themselves, quickly fading from memory, "Hotel Rwanda" actually has something to say. In fact, it's blessed with two resonant themes: that one man can make a difference when it comes to saving lives, and more importantly, that we are all our brother's keeper. We ignore the latter to our peril. Certainly, if we don't go to someone's aid, we can't expect them to come to ours. For as Benjamin Franklin once said, "We must, indeed, all hang together or, most assuredly, we shall all hang separately."
Responses, comments and general two-cents worth can be E-mailed to gillis662000@yahoo.com.
(Note: For all those who missed my past reviews, they're archived on Hollywoodlitsales.com. Just click the link on the main page and it'll take you to the Inner Sanctum. Love them or Hate them at your leisure!)
Freeman Mbowe
Freeman Aikaeli Mbowe (born 14 September 1961) is a Tanzanian politician and chairman of Chama cha Democracies na Maendeleo (CHADEMA – Party for Democracy and Development).[1]
Mbowe Campaigning
Mbowe was elected to the National Assembly in 2000 representing Hai Constituency (Kilimanjaro Region). He won 64.5% of the vote, which was the highest percentage of votes won among constituencies with opposition MP's.
In preparation for the 2005 elections, Mbowe was nominated as CHADEMA's presidential candidate.[2] Jumbe Rajab Jumbe, a Zanzibari was chosen as his vice-presidential candidate. The election was originally scheduled for 30 October 2005, but was postponed until 14 December due to the death of Jumbe.
Mbowe and Komu Campaigning
Mbowe criticized the lengthy postponement, saying a week's delay would have sufficed and that his party cannot afford to finance extra campaigning. Chadema eventually settled on Anna Maulidah Komu to be the running mate.
He placed third out of ten candidates in the 14 December 2005 presidential election, winning 5.88% of the vote. Although there are rumors’ that many of the votes in that election were stolen by the ruling part Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) going to their presidential candidate, Jakaya Kikwete.
Mbowe Campaigning
Mbowe was elected to the National Assembly in 2000 representing Hai Constituency (Kilimanjaro Region). He won 64.5% of the vote, which was the highest percentage of votes won among constituencies with opposition MP's.
In preparation for the 2005 elections, Mbowe was nominated as CHADEMA's presidential candidate.[2] Jumbe Rajab Jumbe, a Zanzibari was chosen as his vice-presidential candidate. The election was originally scheduled for 30 October 2005, but was postponed until 14 December due to the death of Jumbe.
Mbowe and Komu Campaigning
Mbowe criticized the lengthy postponement, saying a week's delay would have sufficed and that his party cannot afford to finance extra campaigning. Chadema eventually settled on Anna Maulidah Komu to be the running mate.
He placed third out of ten candidates in the 14 December 2005 presidential election, winning 5.88% of the vote. Although there are rumors’ that many of the votes in that election were stolen by the ruling part Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) going to their presidential candidate, Jakaya Kikwete.
Manchester United F.C.
Manchester United Football Club is an English professional football club, based in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, that plays in the Premier League. Founded as Newton Heath LYR Football Club in 1878, the club changed its name to Manchester United in 1902 and moved to Old Trafford in 1910.
In 1968, under the management of Matt Busby, Manchester United was the first English football club to win the European Cup, ten years after the Munich air disaster that claimed the lives of eight players. The current manager, Sir Alex Ferguson, is the most successful manager in English football history, having won 26 major honours since he took over in November 1986.[3][4]
Having won 18 league titles, four League Cups and a record 11 FA Cups,[5] Manchester United is one of the most successful clubs in the history of English football. The club has also won three European Cups and is unique in having won a Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League Treble, in the 1998–99 season.
Manchester United is one of the wealthiest and most widely supported football teams in the world.[6][7][8][9] The club is said to be worth £1.13 billion, making it the most valuable football club in the world.[10] After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club was purchased by Malcolm Glazer in May 2005 in a deal valuing the club at almost £800 million.[11]
History
A chart showing the progress of Manchester United F.C. through the English football league system from joining as Newton.
Manchester United was formed as Newton Heath LYR Football Club by the Carriage and Wagon department of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath.[12] The team initially played games against other departments and rail companies, but on 20 November they competed in their first recorded match; wearing the colours of the railway company – green and gold – they were defeated 6–0 by Bolton Wanderers' reserve team.[13],The club had become a founding member of The Combination, a regional football league. However, following the league's dissolution after just one season, Newton Heath joined the newly formed Football Alliance, which ran for three seasons before being merged with the Football League. This resulted in the club starting the 1892–93 season in the First Division, by which time it had become independent of the rail company and dropped the "LYR" from its name.[12] After just two seasons, the club was relegated to the Second Division.[12]
The Manchester United team at the start of the 1905–06 season, in which they were runners-up in the Second Division
In January with debts of £2,670 – equivalent to £210,000 as of 2011[14] – the club was served with a winding-up order.[15] Captain Harry Stafford found four local businessmen, including John Henry Davies (who became club president), each willing to invest £500 in return for a direct interest in running the club and who subsequently changed the name;[16] on 24 April 1902, Manchester United was officially born.[17][18] Under Ernest Mangnall, who assumed managerial duties in 1903, the team finished as Second Division runners-up in 1906 and secured promotion to the First Division, which they won in 1908 – the club's first league title. The following season began with victory in the first ever Charity Shield[19] and ended with the club's first FA Cup title Manchester.
In 1968, under the management of Matt Busby, Manchester United was the first English football club to win the European Cup, ten years after the Munich air disaster that claimed the lives of eight players. The current manager, Sir Alex Ferguson, is the most successful manager in English football history, having won 26 major honours since he took over in November 1986.[3][4]
Having won 18 league titles, four League Cups and a record 11 FA Cups,[5] Manchester United is one of the most successful clubs in the history of English football. The club has also won three European Cups and is unique in having won a Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League Treble, in the 1998–99 season.
Manchester United is one of the wealthiest and most widely supported football teams in the world.[6][7][8][9] The club is said to be worth £1.13 billion, making it the most valuable football club in the world.[10] After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club was purchased by Malcolm Glazer in May 2005 in a deal valuing the club at almost £800 million.[11]
History
A chart showing the progress of Manchester United F.C. through the English football league system from joining as Newton.
Manchester United was formed as Newton Heath LYR Football Club by the Carriage and Wagon department of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath.[12] The team initially played games against other departments and rail companies, but on 20 November they competed in their first recorded match; wearing the colours of the railway company – green and gold – they were defeated 6–0 by Bolton Wanderers' reserve team.[13],The club had become a founding member of The Combination, a regional football league. However, following the league's dissolution after just one season, Newton Heath joined the newly formed Football Alliance, which ran for three seasons before being merged with the Football League. This resulted in the club starting the 1892–93 season in the First Division, by which time it had become independent of the rail company and dropped the "LYR" from its name.[12] After just two seasons, the club was relegated to the Second Division.[12]
The Manchester United team at the start of the 1905–06 season, in which they were runners-up in the Second Division
In January with debts of £2,670 – equivalent to £210,000 as of 2011[14] – the club was served with a winding-up order.[15] Captain Harry Stafford found four local businessmen, including John Henry Davies (who became club president), each willing to invest £500 in return for a direct interest in running the club and who subsequently changed the name;[16] on 24 April 1902, Manchester United was officially born.[17][18] Under Ernest Mangnall, who assumed managerial duties in 1903, the team finished as Second Division runners-up in 1906 and secured promotion to the First Division, which they won in 1908 – the club's first league title. The following season began with victory in the first ever Charity Shield[19] and ended with the club's first FA Cup title Manchester.
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, MTB or TB (short for tubercles bacillus) is a common and in some cases deadly infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis in humans.[1] Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body. It is spread through the air when people who have an active MTB infection cough, sneeze, or otherwise transmit their saliva through the air.[2] Most infections in humans result in an asymptomatic, latent infection, and about one in ten latent infections eventually progresses to active disease, which, if left untreated, kills more than 50% of its victims.
The classic symptoms are a chronic cough with blood-tinged sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss (the last giving rise to the formerly prevalent colloquial term "consumption"). Infection of other organs causes a wide range of symptoms. Diagnosis relies on radiology (commonly chest X-rays), a tuberculin skin test, blood tests, as well as microscopic examination and microbiological culture of bodily fluids. Treatment is difficult and requires long courses of multiple antibiotics. Contacts are also screened and treated if necessary. Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem in (extensively) multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis. Prevention relies on screening programs and vaccination, usually with Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccine.
One third of the world's population is thought to be infected with M. tuberculosis,[3][4] and new infections occur at a rate of about one per second.[5] The proportion of people who become sick with tuberculosis each year is stable or falling worldwide but, because of population growth, the absolute number of new cases is still increasing.[5] In 2007 there were an estimated 13.7 million chronic active cases, 9.3 million new cases, and 1.8 million deaths, mostly in developing countries.[6] In addition, more people in the developed world contract tuberculosis because their immune systems are more likely to be compromised due to higher exposure to immunosuppressive drugs, substance abuse, or AIDS. The distribution of tuberculosis is not uniform across the globe; about 80% of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive in tuberculin tests, while only 5–10% of the US population test positive.[1]
Main symptoms of variants and stages of tuberculosis,[7][8] with many symptoms overlapping with other variants, while others are more (but not entirely) specific for certain variants. Multiple variants may be present simu
When the disease becomes active, 75% of the cases are pulmonary TB, that is, TB in the lungs. Symptoms include chest pain, coughing up blood, and a productive, prolonged cough for more than three weeks. Systemic symptoms include fever, chills, night sweats, appetite loss, weight loss, pallor, and fatigue.[9] Tuberculosis also has a specific
Causes
Main article: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
The cause of TB, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), is a small aerobic non-motile bacillus. High lipid content of this pathogen accounts for many of its unique clinical characteristics.[13] It divides every 16 to 20 hours, an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour.[14] (For example, one of the fastest-growing bacteria is a strain of E. coli that can divide roughly every 20 minutes.) Since MTB has a cell wall but lacks a phospholipid outer membrane, it is classified as a Gram-positive bacterium. However, if a Gram stain is performed, MTB either stains very weakly Gram-positive or does not retain dye as a result of the high lipid & mycolic acid content of its cell wall.[15] MTB can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in vitro.[16]
Using histological stains on expectorate samples from phlegm (also called sputum), scientists can identify MTB under a regular microscope. Since MTB retains certain stains after being treated with acidic solution, it is classified as an acid-fast bacillus (AFB).[1][15] The most common acid-fast staining technique, the Ziehl-Neelsen stain, dyes AFBs a bright red that stands out clearly against a blue background. Other ways to visualize AFBs include an auramine-rhodamine stain and fluorescent microscopy.
The M. tuberculosis complex includes four other TB-causing mycobacteria: M. bovis, M. africanum, M. canetti and M. microti.[17] M. africanum is not widespread, but in parts of Africa it is a significant cause of tuberculosis.[18][19] M. bovis was once a common cause of tuberculosis, but the introduction of pasteurized milk has largely eliminated this as a public health problem in developed countries.[1][20] M. canetti is rare and seems to be limited to Africa, although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants.[21] M. microti is mostly seen in immunodeficient people, although it is possible that the prevalence of this pathogen has been underestimated.[22]
Other known pathogenic mycobacteria include Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium marinum, Mycobacterium avium and M. kansasii. The last two are part of the nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) group. Nontuberculous mycobacteria cause neither TB nor leprosy, but they do cause pulmonary diseases resembling TB.[23]
to be greater in persons with insulin-dependent or poorly controlled diabetes.[28] Other clinical conditions that have been associated with active TB include gastrectomy with attendant weight loss and malabsorption, jejunoileal bypass, renal and cardiac transplantation, carcinoma of the head or neck, and other neoplasms (e.g., lung cancer, lymphoma, and leukemia).[29]
Given that silicosis greatly increases the risk of tuberculosis, more research about the effect of various indoor or outdoor air pollutants on the disease would be necessary. Some possible indoor sources of silica include paint, concrete and Portland cement.
TB prevention and control takes two parallel approaches. In the first, people with TB and their contacts are identified and then treated. Identification of infections often involves testing high-risk groups for TB. In the second approach, children are vaccinated to protect them from TB. No vaccine is available that provides reliable protection for adults. However, in tropical areas where the levels of other species of mycobacteria are high, exposure to non-tuberculous mycobacteria gives some protection against TB.[63]
The classic symptoms are a chronic cough with blood-tinged sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss (the last giving rise to the formerly prevalent colloquial term "consumption"). Infection of other organs causes a wide range of symptoms. Diagnosis relies on radiology (commonly chest X-rays), a tuberculin skin test, blood tests, as well as microscopic examination and microbiological culture of bodily fluids. Treatment is difficult and requires long courses of multiple antibiotics. Contacts are also screened and treated if necessary. Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem in (extensively) multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis. Prevention relies on screening programs and vaccination, usually with Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccine.
One third of the world's population is thought to be infected with M. tuberculosis,[3][4] and new infections occur at a rate of about one per second.[5] The proportion of people who become sick with tuberculosis each year is stable or falling worldwide but, because of population growth, the absolute number of new cases is still increasing.[5] In 2007 there were an estimated 13.7 million chronic active cases, 9.3 million new cases, and 1.8 million deaths, mostly in developing countries.[6] In addition, more people in the developed world contract tuberculosis because their immune systems are more likely to be compromised due to higher exposure to immunosuppressive drugs, substance abuse, or AIDS. The distribution of tuberculosis is not uniform across the globe; about 80% of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive in tuberculin tests, while only 5–10% of the US population test positive.[1]
Main symptoms of variants and stages of tuberculosis,[7][8] with many symptoms overlapping with other variants, while others are more (but not entirely) specific for certain variants. Multiple variants may be present simu
When the disease becomes active, 75% of the cases are pulmonary TB, that is, TB in the lungs. Symptoms include chest pain, coughing up blood, and a productive, prolonged cough for more than three weeks. Systemic symptoms include fever, chills, night sweats, appetite loss, weight loss, pallor, and fatigue.[9] Tuberculosis also has a specific
Causes
Main article: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
The cause of TB, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), is a small aerobic non-motile bacillus. High lipid content of this pathogen accounts for many of its unique clinical characteristics.[13] It divides every 16 to 20 hours, an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour.[14] (For example, one of the fastest-growing bacteria is a strain of E. coli that can divide roughly every 20 minutes.) Since MTB has a cell wall but lacks a phospholipid outer membrane, it is classified as a Gram-positive bacterium. However, if a Gram stain is performed, MTB either stains very weakly Gram-positive or does not retain dye as a result of the high lipid & mycolic acid content of its cell wall.[15] MTB can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in vitro.[16]
Using histological stains on expectorate samples from phlegm (also called sputum), scientists can identify MTB under a regular microscope. Since MTB retains certain stains after being treated with acidic solution, it is classified as an acid-fast bacillus (AFB).[1][15] The most common acid-fast staining technique, the Ziehl-Neelsen stain, dyes AFBs a bright red that stands out clearly against a blue background. Other ways to visualize AFBs include an auramine-rhodamine stain and fluorescent microscopy.
The M. tuberculosis complex includes four other TB-causing mycobacteria: M. bovis, M. africanum, M. canetti and M. microti.[17] M. africanum is not widespread, but in parts of Africa it is a significant cause of tuberculosis.[18][19] M. bovis was once a common cause of tuberculosis, but the introduction of pasteurized milk has largely eliminated this as a public health problem in developed countries.[1][20] M. canetti is rare and seems to be limited to Africa, although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants.[21] M. microti is mostly seen in immunodeficient people, although it is possible that the prevalence of this pathogen has been underestimated.[22]
Other known pathogenic mycobacteria include Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium marinum, Mycobacterium avium and M. kansasii. The last two are part of the nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) group. Nontuberculous mycobacteria cause neither TB nor leprosy, but they do cause pulmonary diseases resembling TB.[23]
to be greater in persons with insulin-dependent or poorly controlled diabetes.[28] Other clinical conditions that have been associated with active TB include gastrectomy with attendant weight loss and malabsorption, jejunoileal bypass, renal and cardiac transplantation, carcinoma of the head or neck, and other neoplasms (e.g., lung cancer, lymphoma, and leukemia).[29]
Given that silicosis greatly increases the risk of tuberculosis, more research about the effect of various indoor or outdoor air pollutants on the disease would be necessary. Some possible indoor sources of silica include paint, concrete and Portland cement.
TB prevention and control takes two parallel approaches. In the first, people with TB and their contacts are identified and then treated. Identification of infections often involves testing high-risk groups for TB. In the second approach, children are vaccinated to protect them from TB. No vaccine is available that provides reliable protection for adults. However, in tropical areas where the levels of other species of mycobacteria are high, exposure to non-tuberculous mycobacteria gives some protection against TB.[63]
The Impact of Face book on Today's Society
The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the topic of social networking. Specifically it will discuss the impact of the social networking site Face book on today's society. Face book has become a phenomenon for the social networking set, and what makes that so amazing is that Face book did not even exist until 2004. Three college students created it to allow other students to network and meet each other, and it has caught on with young people around the globe. What impact does Face book have on today's technologically advanced society? It allows people who probably never would have met each other in person to communicate, it creates new relationships and friendships, and it places distance between people who could communicate in person but instead choose to communicate online, instead. It is just another element of society that is interested in sharing information with the intimacy of a close, personal relationship.
Face book is nothing more than a medium for communication, and yet, it is so much more than that. At a glance, a user can learn everything from what gender a Face book member is, to what religion they believe in, what school they attend, and their likes and dislikes, all with the click of a mouse.
Experts estimate that many people now spend at least 50 percent of their waking time online (Fabian, 2008). For many, a large part of this time is spent in social networking sites like Facebook. People give up huge parts of their privacy when they post their feelings, interests, and ideas online, and society seems to be becoming much more open to this lack of privacy, in fact, the users of Face book seem to relish it, adding very personal items to their profiles that anyone who becomes their friend can view. This seems to say that our society is much more open now, and much more open to posting intimate information online, but it also is rather anonymous in a way, because users never see, meet, or touch the person they communicate with, and so, even though they know intimate details, they do not really know the person at all. Writer Fabian continues, "Face book and My Space are virtual experiences. People are free to be someone they aren't. Peer review doesn't exist. You don't literally touch anyone--not even by a smile, to say nothing of a handshake. No one is accountable to anyone else. And so forth" (Fabian, 2008). Thus, Face book is kind of a "fantasy land" where people can make up anything they want to command attention, they can live an alternative life if they choose, and no one is the wiser. The fact that people accept these profiles at face value, and choose people as friends based on these profiles says a lot about our society. For all our worries about information and identity theft, people are still seemingly naive when it comes to sites like Face book, where they post intimate details with no thoughts to the consequences.
In conclusion, Face book on the surface is a socially acceptable networking site for college students and others to connect, share experiences, and meet old friends. It does say some disturbing things about how our society views privacy, personal information, and how our society is adjusting to the age of technology, and it brings into question what a generation of Face brokers will deal with the challenges of the real world in person, like career, family, and success.
Keywords. Face book, social networking, My Space, personal profile, Freshman Face book, interpersonal skills, communication, online marketing, personal privacy, virtual communities.
Face book is nothing more than a medium for communication, and yet, it is so much more than that. At a glance, a user can learn everything from what gender a Face book member is, to what religion they believe in, what school they attend, and their likes and dislikes, all with the click of a mouse.
Experts estimate that many people now spend at least 50 percent of their waking time online (Fabian, 2008). For many, a large part of this time is spent in social networking sites like Facebook. People give up huge parts of their privacy when they post their feelings, interests, and ideas online, and society seems to be becoming much more open to this lack of privacy, in fact, the users of Face book seem to relish it, adding very personal items to their profiles that anyone who becomes their friend can view. This seems to say that our society is much more open now, and much more open to posting intimate information online, but it also is rather anonymous in a way, because users never see, meet, or touch the person they communicate with, and so, even though they know intimate details, they do not really know the person at all. Writer Fabian continues, "Face book and My Space are virtual experiences. People are free to be someone they aren't. Peer review doesn't exist. You don't literally touch anyone--not even by a smile, to say nothing of a handshake. No one is accountable to anyone else. And so forth" (Fabian, 2008). Thus, Face book is kind of a "fantasy land" where people can make up anything they want to command attention, they can live an alternative life if they choose, and no one is the wiser. The fact that people accept these profiles at face value, and choose people as friends based on these profiles says a lot about our society. For all our worries about information and identity theft, people are still seemingly naive when it comes to sites like Face book, where they post intimate details with no thoughts to the consequences.
In conclusion, Face book on the surface is a socially acceptable networking site for college students and others to connect, share experiences, and meet old friends. It does say some disturbing things about how our society views privacy, personal information, and how our society is adjusting to the age of technology, and it brings into question what a generation of Face brokers will deal with the challenges of the real world in person, like career, family, and success.
Keywords. Face book, social networking, My Space, personal profile, Freshman Face book, interpersonal skills, communication, online marketing, personal privacy, virtual communities.
Mass media
Mass media refers collectively to all media technologies, including the Internet, television, newspapers, and radio, which are used for mass communications, and to the organizations which control these technologies.[1][2]
Since the 1950s, in the countries that have reached a high level of industrialization, the mass media of cinema, radio and TV have a key role in political power.[3]
Contemporary research demonstrates an increasing level of concentration of media ownership, with many media industries already highly concentrated and dominated by a very small number of firms.[4]
History
The phrase "the media" began to be used in the 1920s, but referred to something that had its origins much further in the past.[5] The invention of the printing press in the late 15th century gave rise to some of the first forms of mass communication, by enabling the publication of books and newspapers on a scale much larger than was previously possible.[6][7][8]
Newspapers
Main article: History of newspapers and magazines
The first high-circulation newspapers arose in the eastern United States in the early 1800s, and were made possible by the invention of high-speed rotary steam printing presses, and railroads which allowed large-scale distribution over wide geographical areas. The increase in circulation, however, led to a decline in feedback and interactivity from the readership, making newspapers a more one-way medium.[9][10][11]
Since the beginning, high-circulation newspapers have been a medium for conditioning public opinion.[12]
Electrical telegraph
Main article: Telegraphy
In the 1840s, the first commercial electrical telegraph was developed, allowing to separate communications from transportation, enabling messages to be transmitted instantaneously over large distances.[7]
Cinema began to be a large-scale entertainment industry in 1894, with the first commercial exhibition of film. The first films with a narrative bagan to be distributed in 1987.
Radio
Main article: History of radio
The first commercial broadcasts in the United States began in the 1920s.
Television
Main article: History of television
The first television broadcasts for a mass audience began in 1936 Germany and UK.[13][14] Regular mass TV broadcasts in the United States only began in 1948, with a show hosted by Arturo Toscanini and starring comedian Milton Berle.
Political role in advanced capitalism
Since the '50s, when cinema, radio and TV began to be the primary or the only source of information for a larger and larger percentage of the population, these media began to be considered as central instruments of mass control.[15][16] Up to the point that it emerged the idea that when a country has reached a high level of industrialization, the country itself "belongs to the person who controls communications."[3]
Mass media play a significant role in shaping public perceptions on a variety of important issues, both through the information that is dispensed through them, and through the interpretations they place upon this information.[15] They also play a large role in shaping modern culture, by selecting and portraying a particular set of beliefs, values, and traditions (an entire way of life), as reality. That is, by portraying a certain interpretation of reality, they shape reality to be more in line with that interpretation.[16]
Mass media can be used for various purposes:
• Advocacy, both for business and social concerns. This can include advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations, and political communication.
• Entertainment, traditionally through performances of acting, music, and sports, along with light reading; since the late 20th century also through video and computer games.
• Public service announcements.
Technologies
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (March 2011)
Electronic media and print media include:
• Broadcasting, in the narrow sense, for radio and television.
• Many instances of various types of recorded discs or tapes. In the 20th century, these were mainly used for music. Video and computer uses followed.
• Film, most often used for entertainment, but also for documentaries.
• The Internet – examples include Blogs and broadcasts (such as news, music, pre-recorded speech, and video)
• Mobile phones, which can be used for rapid breaking news and short clips of entertainment like jokes, horoscopes, alerts, games, music, and advertising
• Publishing, including electronic publishing
• Video games, which have developed into a mass form of media[citation needed]
Since the 1950s, in the countries that have reached a high level of industrialization, the mass media of cinema, radio and TV have a key role in political power.[3]
Contemporary research demonstrates an increasing level of concentration of media ownership, with many media industries already highly concentrated and dominated by a very small number of firms.[4]
History
The phrase "the media" began to be used in the 1920s, but referred to something that had its origins much further in the past.[5] The invention of the printing press in the late 15th century gave rise to some of the first forms of mass communication, by enabling the publication of books and newspapers on a scale much larger than was previously possible.[6][7][8]
Newspapers
Main article: History of newspapers and magazines
The first high-circulation newspapers arose in the eastern United States in the early 1800s, and were made possible by the invention of high-speed rotary steam printing presses, and railroads which allowed large-scale distribution over wide geographical areas. The increase in circulation, however, led to a decline in feedback and interactivity from the readership, making newspapers a more one-way medium.[9][10][11]
Since the beginning, high-circulation newspapers have been a medium for conditioning public opinion.[12]
Electrical telegraph
Main article: Telegraphy
In the 1840s, the first commercial electrical telegraph was developed, allowing to separate communications from transportation, enabling messages to be transmitted instantaneously over large distances.[7]
Cinema began to be a large-scale entertainment industry in 1894, with the first commercial exhibition of film. The first films with a narrative bagan to be distributed in 1987.
Radio
Main article: History of radio
The first commercial broadcasts in the United States began in the 1920s.
Television
Main article: History of television
The first television broadcasts for a mass audience began in 1936 Germany and UK.[13][14] Regular mass TV broadcasts in the United States only began in 1948, with a show hosted by Arturo Toscanini and starring comedian Milton Berle.
Political role in advanced capitalism
Since the '50s, when cinema, radio and TV began to be the primary or the only source of information for a larger and larger percentage of the population, these media began to be considered as central instruments of mass control.[15][16] Up to the point that it emerged the idea that when a country has reached a high level of industrialization, the country itself "belongs to the person who controls communications."[3]
Mass media play a significant role in shaping public perceptions on a variety of important issues, both through the information that is dispensed through them, and through the interpretations they place upon this information.[15] They also play a large role in shaping modern culture, by selecting and portraying a particular set of beliefs, values, and traditions (an entire way of life), as reality. That is, by portraying a certain interpretation of reality, they shape reality to be more in line with that interpretation.[16]
Mass media can be used for various purposes:
• Advocacy, both for business and social concerns. This can include advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations, and political communication.
• Entertainment, traditionally through performances of acting, music, and sports, along with light reading; since the late 20th century also through video and computer games.
• Public service announcements.
Technologies
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (March 2011)
Electronic media and print media include:
• Broadcasting, in the narrow sense, for radio and television.
• Many instances of various types of recorded discs or tapes. In the 20th century, these were mainly used for music. Video and computer uses followed.
• Film, most often used for entertainment, but also for documentaries.
• The Internet – examples include Blogs and broadcasts (such as news, music, pre-recorded speech, and video)
• Mobile phones, which can be used for rapid breaking news and short clips of entertainment like jokes, horoscopes, alerts, games, music, and advertising
• Publishing, including electronic publishing
• Video games, which have developed into a mass form of media[citation needed]
Communication theory
Human communication is understood in various ways by those who identify with the field. This diversity is the result of communication being a relatively young field of study, composed of a very broad constituency of disciplines. It includes work taken from scholars of Rhetoric, Journalism, Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology, and Semiotics, among others. Cognate areas include telecommunications, which investigates communicative processes within and among non-humans such as bacteria, animals, fungi and plants, and information theory, which provides a mathematical model for measuring communication within and among systems.
Generally, human communication is concerned with the making of meaning and the exchange of understanding. One model of communication considers it from the perspective of transmitting information from one person to another. In fact, many scholars of communication take this as a working definition, and use Lass-well's maxim, "who says what to whom in which channel with what effect," as a means of circumscribing the field of communication theory. Among those who subscribe to the transmission model are those who identify themselves with the communication sciences, and finds its roots in the studies of propaganda and mass media of the early 20th century.
A simple communication model with a sender transferring a message containing information to a receiver.
Constructionist Models
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression. The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
• Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
o For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
psychological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny noise or a cough.
physiological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
• Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
• Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
• Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
• Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
• Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Generally, human communication is concerned with the making of meaning and the exchange of understanding. One model of communication considers it from the perspective of transmitting information from one person to another. In fact, many scholars of communication take this as a working definition, and use Lass-well's maxim, "who says what to whom in which channel with what effect," as a means of circumscribing the field of communication theory. Among those who subscribe to the transmission model are those who identify themselves with the communication sciences, and finds its roots in the studies of propaganda and mass media of the early 20th century.
A simple communication model with a sender transferring a message containing information to a receiver.
Constructionist Models
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression. The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
• Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
o For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
psychological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny noise or a cough.
physiological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
• Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
• Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
• Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
• Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
• Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)